Omega-3s are traditionally sourced from fish oil derived from wild-caught anchovies and other oily fish, and the industry’s rapid growth has raised ongoing concerns about overfishing and its impact on marine ecosystems and the broader food chain.
Despite the vast majority of fish oil being used in aquaculture, its direct use in human food and dietary supplements is growing, with the nutraceutical sector seeing demand for fish oil increasing by an average of 10% every year.
In response to the resulting environmental and cost pressures, the industry has begun to adapt and innovate, commercializing and scaling alternative sources such as krill, algae, plants and seeds. Environmental stewardship is now woven into sourcing, formulation, certification and marketing strategies for omega‑3 products, influencing R&D priorities and supply chain decisions across the value chain.
Industry bodies such as Global Organization for EPA and DHA Omega-3s (GOED) explicitly support these approaches as part of a diversified supply response to finite marine resources. In fact, GOED has recently published guidance to provide a common framework for evaluating the sustainability of fish, krill, algae and seed-based sources in a $2 billion global omega-3 market.
The main aim of the guidance, which is being published in three steps over the course of 2026, is to provide recommendations on life-cycle assessment (LCA) parameters, allowing companies to comprehensively study, compare and communicate the sustainability of their omega-3 products.
“The global omega-3 industry includes a variety of sources of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which are currently produced from a wide range of marine, microbial and agricultural sources,” the latest report states. “While this innovation strengthens supply resilience and sustainability goals, it has also led to a fragmented landscape on life cycle assessment (LCA) approaches, assumptions, and system boundaries. These inconsistencies can limit the comparability, transparency and credibility of environmental claims across the sector.”
A common framework
Developed with environmental advisory firm EcoEngineers, the guidance is designed to help stakeholders interpret available tools and apply consistent metrics across products and supply chains to International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards.
Using LCA methodology, the report analyzes the potential environmental impacts associated with each omega-3 source throughout its entire lifecycle, encompassing resource use, impact on human health and any ecological consequences.
The paper notes that sustainability varies by production methods, making it difficult to definitively rank omega-3 sources.
Chris Gearheart, director of sustainability and market intelligence at GOED, explained that EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) oils from fish, krill, algae and GM oilseeds have at least seven life cycle impact categories in common despite their different production method and paths—climate change potential, water use, land use, resource depletion, eutrophication and acidification.
“Take resource depletion: It centers on fuel and packaging use for fish and krill oil, on feedstock nutrient and energy inputs for algae and on fertilizers and fossil fuel use for GM oilseeds,” he said.
“Outcomes within any category depend on production-specific variables that can differ by facility, region or supply chain. A single producer’s efficiency gains (or costs) can shift outcomes significantly—sometimes enough to diverge from others producing from that same source type. This is why each producer’s own LCA matters more than general assumptions about different sources’ impacts.”
Fish oil: A finite supply
Fish oil sustainability varies by source and while well-managed fisheries can be sustainable, industrial fishing places significant pressures on marine ecosystems, with overfishing and bycatch disrupting the food chain and threatening biodiversity.
Much of the increasing global demand for fish oil and its associated health benefits is sourced from Peruvian anchovy harvested in the North-Central region of Peru, an area that accounts for more than half of global supply.
However, anchovy stocks have faced mounting stress from both climate change and periodic El Niño events, which are characterized by warming ocean surface temperatures. In 2023, these conditions led the Peruvian government, which assesses biomass levels before authorizing each of the two annual fishing seasons, to cancel an entire anchovy season.
The fishery has since recovered, but the World Meteorological Organization recently warned that another El Niño event could begin later this year.
Despite these concerns, Gearheart says that fish oil suppliers are largely mindful of their environmental impact and work to protect sources and diversify supply chains so that no single fishery is pressured into overfishing.
“Almost all omega-3 oils for the supplement industry are made from seafood or animal feed by-products harvested from non-overfished fisheries,” he said. “If all fish oil demand for human consumption disappeared, those fisheries would likely continue to be fished at the same responsible rate for either end use or others.”
He added that demand for fish oil in dietary supplements does not lead to irresponsible fishing, noting that companies and communities tied to these fisheries have both financial and stewardship incentives to maintain their health.
Beyond marine biodiversity and long-term resource sustainability considerations, GOED’s LCA methodology considers a number of other important factors that contribute to the environmental impact of fish oils. This includes fuel use, energy for cold storage, chemicals, water use and packaging.
These considerations have led some fish oil suppliers to turn to other sources of omega-3. For example, dsm-firmenich, once a major global leader in omega-3 fish oils, exited the fish oil business in 2024 to focus on microalgae production.
Brent MacDonald, business development director of algal lipids at dsm-firmenich, said this decision was primarily led by instability in fish oil prices and the company’s desire to focus on sustainability commitments.
“Over the past several years, the fish oil prices have been highly volatile rather than steadily inflationary,” he said. “This volatility makes it very difficult for dietary supplement brands to secure stable supply or cost certainty beyond a season.”
“Our decision to exit the fish oil business in 2024 was therefore a strategic one: to reduce earnings volatility and focus on high-growth, sustainable segments that align with consumer trends and sustainability commitments. This transition allows us to reallocate resources and concentrate fully on innovation driven categories, such as microalgal omega-3 and our life’s Omega portfolio, which provide supply security, scalability and cost predictability—all without placing pressure on marine ecosystems.”
Algae: A green alternative?
Algae and microalgae are one of the fastest growing omega-3 sources, often positioned as a vegan, sustainable alternative to omega-3 fish oil.
As with fish, microalgae is a rich source of both EPA and DHA, but contrary to popular belief, fish do not produce EPA and DHA themselves. Most EPA and DHA found in fish originate from microalgae at the base of the marine food chain, transferred through organisms such as zooplankton that feed on phytoplankton.
By producing and farming microalgae, companies are able to cultivate omega-3 straight from the source, without disrupting the delicate marine ecosystem. While microalgae are naturally abundant in both fresh water and marine environments, commercial production typically involves cultivation in open water ponds or in large enclosed bioreactor systems.
Both of these methods are considered environmentally friendly as they do not typically compete with agricultural land and their cultivation methods can directly capture CO2, reducing the overall carbon footprint.
According to GOED’s guidance, life-cycle assessments must also account for differences in how companies cultivate and produce microalgae.
While these facilities do not directly alter the marine ecosystem, large-scale operations are often highly energy intensive, with significant inputs needed for lighting, pumps, temperature control and aeration. Water consumption can also be substantial (although water recycling can be implemented), and facilities are sometimes built on arable land. Factors such as feedstock sourcing, refrigeration and packaging requirements should also be considered when assessing overall sustainability.
The major advantage of microalgae is that it is a renewable, non-finite resource that can double its biomass within very short timeframes, allowing for a continuous supply with a carbon-neutral impact.
As such, it offers a sustainable way to supply omega-3s without affecting marine ecosystems, said Elena Gromoboeva, global marketing lead for dietary supplements at dsm-firmenich.
“[Fish oil] is finite—even if managed perfectly, there’s a natural ceiling on how much can be extracted without harming marine ecosystems," she noted. “At the same time, global demand for omega-3 continues to grow and cannot be met by wild fish alone without a risking ecological limits. There is a fundamental supply gap that exists today, and this gap will only increase over time as demand across the various sectors continues to grow.”
In this scenario, she highlighted that brands are already future-proofing portfolios by integrating commercially-proven microalgae‑derived EPA and DHA into their long‑term omega‑3 strategies.
Krill: A ‘next-gen’ omega-3 solution?
Krill, which are among the most abundant species on earth, have also emerged as an alternative source of omega-3s. These small, shrimp-like crustaceans measure about 5 cm in length. An estimated 400 to 500 million tons are found in the Antarctic ocean alone.
Feeding on microalgae and in turn eaten by fish, birds, penguins and whales, they play a vital role in marine ecosystems as a rich source of both EPA and DHA and other nutrients such as choline, vitamins A and E, and astaxanthin.
One of the largest krill oil suppliers in the dietary supplement space is Aker BioMarine, which began its krill harvesting operations in 2006.
“At Aker BioMarine, advances in research are driving the development of next-generation omega-3 solutions,” said Matts Johansen, CEO of Aker BioMarine. “Each year, scientific studies deepen understanding of both the health benefits of krill-based omega-3s and the sustainable practices required to protect their long-term availability. By collaborating closely with academic institutions and research partners, Aker BioMarine is pioneering harvesting, processing and verification methods that minimize environmental impact while maximizing product quality.”
Aker BioMarine has established strict sustainability practices to ensure that krill are harvested responsibly and to protect the wider food chain, particularly animals that feed on this food source.
“The Antarctic krill fishery is widely recognized as one of the most conservatively managed in the world,” Johansen said. “Under the CCAMLR [Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources] framework, the precautionary catch limit is set at just 620,000 tonnes—less than 1% of the estimated 63 million-tonne krill biomass in Area 48. This means that 99% of the krill population is left untouched and available for whales, seals, penguins, squid, fish and birds that feed on krill.”
Meanwhile, the Environmental Reporting Collective has warned that catch limits are being met at alarming speeds and that this could threaten the food supply of penguins and whales. The environmental group say companies harvesting krill oil must focus not only on how much krill is extracted from the ocean, but also when and where.
In 2018, Aker BioMarine announced a voluntary no-fishing zone around penguin colonies, and the company is now advancing plans to help establish one of the world’s largest Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) near the Antarctic Peninsula—a partnership supported by King Charles III.
“Covering nearly 70% of Antarctic waters, this proposed MPA represents a coordinated industry initiative and a major stride toward the United Nations’ 30x30 conservation target—protecting key habitats while supporting the sustainable management of marine resources,” Johansen said.
Despite these dedicated attempts to limit the environmental impact of krill fishing, environmental groups have objected to the recommendation of a “blue tick” sustainability label being awarded to the Norwegian krill fishing giant, and in October 2025, UK-based retailer Holland & Barrett announced plans to fully withdraw all krill-based products from its shelves by April 2026 following pressure from conservationists.
Johansen maintains that the krill population is healthy and that the Antarctic krill fishery is a well-managed, low-volume, ecosystem-conscious omega-3 source.
“Antarctic krill continues to be one of the world’s biggest and most underutilized marine resources,” he said. “Independent studies from the Norwegian Institute of Marine Research (IMR) show that Antarctic krill populations are not only stable but flourishing. In 2025, IMR documented the highest krill biomass ever recorded in the waters surrounding South Orkney, highlighting the species’ resilience and signaling strong overall health in the Southern Ocean ecosystem.”
This is reflected within the food chain, Johansen added, with whale species such as humpback and fin species making significant recoveries across the region. In 2024, Aker announced that it diversifying into algae oil, using its krill oil know-how and recently expanded manufacturing capacity to prepare for a supply-and-demand squeeze in the omega-3 fish oil space.
GOED’s LCA guidance notes that the same factors for fish oil must be considered when companies are measuring the sustainability of their krill-based ingredients. This includes fuel consumption, emissions, cold storage, by-products and waste, and water-use for processing.
The evolution of plant-based omega-3 solutions
Many plants and seeds, including chia, flax and hemp, are rich sources of omega-3. These plants use relatively few resources and have a good sustainability profile, with the main environmental considerations being agricultural emissions and irrigation for crop growth.
These sources of omega-3 contain only ALA (alpha-linolenic acid), which the body then has to convert into EPA and DHA. This occurs with low efficiency—typically less than 10% for EPA and less than 5% for DHA—resulting in considerably lower consumer interest in these omega-3 sources, despite their beneficial sustainability profiles.
One solution which may overcome this low conversion rate is Ahiflower oil, which reportedly offers the highest level of non-GM omega-3 essential fatty acids among commercially available dietary plant oils.
Combining ALA (alpha linolenic acid) and SDA (stearidonic acid), this fatty acid coverts EPA at a ratio of 30% to 35%. While it does not raise circulating DHA levels, research in mice shows that DHA can form in the liver, adipose tissue and brain, with comparable efficiency to purified marine DHA. What’s more, Ahiflower oil contains Gamma-Linolenic Acid (GLA), a fatty acid which is not found in most fish or algal oils and has been linked with anti‑inflammatory effects.
Genetic engineering is also opening the door for new plant-based omega-3 sources such as Camelina sativa, which is being developed to produce high levels of EPA and DHA omega-3 fatty acids.
“Regular plant/vegetable oils only contain the shorter form of omega-3 such as ALA,” said Jonathan Napier, a leading pioneer in plant biotechnology at Rothamsted Research. “We have overcome this by using genetic engineering to enable our GM plant [camelina] to now convert ALA to the longer chain (and more valuable and nutritious) EPA+DHA omega-3s.”
By taking the genes from algae, which are the natural producers of EPA+DHA, and expressing them in the seeds of the camelina plants, the resulting seed oils contained EPA and DHA at the same levels as fish oil.
“This is a significant achievement and demonstration of the power of plant biotechnology to deliver sustainability and nutritional traits,” Napier said.
In 2024, Rothamsted Research granted Massachusetts-based Yield10 Bioscience the exclusive global commercial license to advance this technology. Genetically modified camelina has since been approved in the United States for unrestricted cultivation, however, it still needs regulatory approval for use as a feed or food ingredient. Napier said the ability to grow this crop at any scale represents a significant opportunity to improve the nutritional status of the global population and prevent the further depletion of fish stocks.
“EPA and DHA are a critical part of the human diet, yet less and less people are eating enough of these nutrients,” he said. “Simultaneously, the relentless increase in the global population means that the available stocks of fish oil are spread even thinner. Given the important role omega-3 EPA and DHA play in a healthy diet, it is essential to find new sources of these fatty acids which are economically viable. We believe that GM oilseeds such as camelina and canola which have been enhanced to accumulate EPA and DHA in their seed oils represents a proven innovative solution to this challenge.”
