Introduced by Romanian psychologist and chemist Corneliu E. Giurgea in the early 1970s while working on piracetam—one of the first compounds studied for cognitive effects, the term ‘nootropic’ combined the Greek roots nous (mind) and trepein (to bend or turn).
According to Giurgea’s specific criteria, nootropics should enhance memory and learning, strengthen the resistance of learned behaviors and memories, and protect the brain against injuries. They should also differ from traditional psychotropic drugs by avoiding effects such as sedation and motor stimulation, while exhibiting low toxicity and few adverse side effects.
Today, however, the definition has broadened considerably, and the term generally refers to any substance that may enhance cognitive performance—with improvements in learning, memory, concentration and focus as primary criteria, although positive effects on mood are often considered an additional benefit.
Nootropic vs adaptogen
While the term ‘nootropic’ generally refers to any substance that may support or enhance cognitive function, adaptogens are active compounds found in certain plants and mushrooms that help the body respond to and recover from stress while promoting physiological balance (homeostasis).
Althought he two categories overlap, they are defined by different primary effects. Adaptogens are characterized by their potential to increase resilience to physical or psychological stress, whereas nootropics target cognitive performance. As a result, some substances such as ashwagandha, Rhodiola rosea and Panax ginseng, may be considered both adaptogens and nootropics because their stress-modulating effects can coincide with improvements in certain aspects of cognition.
Nootropic are commonly grouped into three categories: prescription drugs, synthetic compounds and dietary supplements. Adderall and Ritalin, for example, are considered ‘smart drugs’—prescription stimulants generally used to improve focus and attention in people with ADHD—while piracetam, a lab-made derivative of the neurotransmitter GABA, is a synthetic nootropic compound.
The vast majority of nootropics, however, are natural substances, often formulated as herbal extracts, mushroom blends, fatty acids and combinations of vitamins and minerals.
The most effective compounds are thought to be those rich in phytochemicals such as flavonoids and polyphenols, which may help reduce brain inflammation and oxidative stress, thereby protecting neurons from damage.
Among the most researched are Panax ginseng, Ginkgo biloba, gotu kola (Centella asiatica), ashwagandha, Bacopa monnieri, guarana and Rhodiola rosea, although these may not be the top performers with today’s consumer.
Nootropics on the market
The market for nootropics has undergone substantial growth in recent years. Whereas historically, these supplements were associated with older adults looking to mitigate cognitive decline, they are now increasingly popular among students, athletes and gamers seeking improve focus, attention and cognitive performance.
This is fueling a global nootropics market predicted to reach $11.5 billion in 2033, up from $5.5 billion in 2025, according to Grand View Research.
Vitamins, minerals, fatty acids and mushrooms are performing particularly well, according to Nick Stene, senior global insight manager for consumer health at Euromonitor.
“The ingredient profile of mind health supplements points to a market moving up the value chain,” he said. “Omega-3 and vitamin C remain foundational anchors, but the more clinically credible forms of magnesium—glycinate and L-threonate particularly—are gaining prominence, reflecting a more informed consumer.
“Functional mushrooms are rising too: Lion’s mane has clear visibility in launch data, while reishi and cordyceps show consistent upward movement over time. NAD+ features across this conversation as well, appearing with growing regularity alongside all healthspan-linked claims—mind health among them.”
Euromonitor data suggests one in five supplements now carry some form of cognitive health claim, although it is not always central to product positioning.
“Mind health is a more pervasive proposition than its headline numbers suggest,” Stene said. “Analyzed as a primary positioning—where cognitive, mental, memory or sleep claims are the hero message—3% of dietary supplement launches globally in the innovation cycle to 2025 sit in this space. Expand that filter to capture any presence of these claims across product descriptions and support messaging, and the figure reaches 21% of all supplements.
He highlighted that this significant differential reveals how extensively mind health has been woven into the broader supplement narrative, even where it is not the lead story.
Meanwhile, ‘nootropic’ is still rarely used on supplement packaging, with Mintel data suggesting this likely reflects low consumer awareness of the term: While 28% of U.S. consumers are interested in cognitive support benefits, only 7% express interest in nootropics.
What the nootropic science says
Plants, mushrooms and other natural nootropic ingredients have been used for centuries by ancient cultures. In India, for example, scholars and monks have used bacopa to improve information retention, while gotu kola, known as the “herb of enlightenment,” is widely used to balance the nervous system and sharpen mental clarity.
These ancient practices have informed decades of scientific research. Dr. Matěj Malík, a researcher at Czech University of Life Sciences Prague who recently authored a review on nootropic agents, said that among plant-based ingredients, the strongest evidence is currently for bacopa and ginseng.
“Bacopa is most often linked with memory-related outcomes, slower forgetting and better consolidation, but usually after longer-term use rather than as an acute effect,” he said. “Ginseng has some evidence for mental performance, attention and fatigue.”
“Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) has also accumulated further positive trials, including a 2024 randomized study reporting gains in episodic and working memory and attention, alongside its better-known effects on stress and anxiety,” he added.
Interestingly, while ginkgo is one of the most studied nootropic ingredients, the evidence is the most inconsistent. Indeed, a 2026 review and meta-analysis found that while it may improve cognition and functional capacity in those with pre-existing cognitive impairment, the overall magnitude of benefit was modest, and its effects in healthy individuals appear more limited.
Dr. Malík noted that the cognitive benefits of most plant compounds are typically modest, dose-dependent and often more pronounced in individuals with impaired cognition. He also stressed the importance of consistent supplementation, as any benefits develop gradually over weeks or months.
Safety is also an important consideration, as some botanical compounds can interact with medication or exacerbate existing health conditions. Ginkgo, guarana, ginseng, rhodiola and ashwagandha all generally have good safety profiles but may be contraindicated in certain circumstances, Dr. Malík added.
“Ginkgo biloba thins the blood, so it can interact with anticoagulants and may be relevant before surgery,” he said. “Guarana is essentially a concentrated caffeine source and may be unsuitable for people with cardiovascular problems, anxiety or sleep disorders, especially at higher doses. Ginseng and eleuthero may be problematic in hypertension. Rhodiola should be used cautiously in people with bipolar or manic-depressive disorders.”
Dr. Malík also highlighted potential safety concerns with ashwagandha, pointing out that although rare and idiosyncratic, case reports and pharmacovigilance data have linked it to instances of clinically apparent liver injury.
He noted that future research on nootropic compounds should therefore focus on longer-term safety and pharmacovigilance, interactions with medication, comparisons between full-spectrum plant extracts and isolated compounds, and improved outcome measures.
Larger, well-designed, double-blind randomized clinical trials using standardized extracts and clearly defined doses are also needed in healthy young adults, given that this group is among the most interested in nootropic products.
Regulatory restrictions
In the European Union, supplement companies can make cognitive-function claims only for certain approved ingredients, due to strict health-claim regulations governing the marketing of nootropics.
This differs from the United States where structure/function claims, such as “supports memory” or “enhances mental focus”, do not require prior approval from the FDA. However, using claims which are unsubstantiated by clinical evidence can trigger scrutiny from the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), as seen in the recent Prevagen case.
In the EU, iodine, iron and zinc can be marketed as contributing to normal cognitive function; pantothenic acid as contributing to normal mental performance; and DHA as contributing to the maintenance of normal brain function.
For botanicals, the regulatory situation is more complex. There are more than 2,000 “on hold” health claims for plant-based substances that are yet to be approved or rejected. Some of these claims refer to cognitive function and may be used under the responsibility of companies, provided they comply with EU regulations.
Given this legal uncertainty, many companies add nutrients with approved health claims to product blends, enabling products containing botanicals to carry cognitive health claims.
The term nootropic itself also represents a legal conundrum, according to Luca Bucchini, managing director at Hylobates Consulting.
“EU law permits the use of different wording for an approved health claim, but the term nootropic implies enhancement of cognition, while authorized health claims always refer to normal cognitive function, brain health or their maintenance,” he said.
In any case, Dr. Malík said terms such as ‘brain boosting’ can infer a much stronger and universal effect than the evidence supports, suggesting that softer claims are more accurate.
“There’s evidence for specific ingredients, specific doses and specific outcomes but much less for broad claims such as better intelligence, faster learning or improved mental performance in all healthy people,” he said. “It’s also worth noting that, with these plants, the activity usually comes from a synergistic mix of compounds, not a single magic molecule, which makes simple ‘active ingredient X boosts your brain’ claims misleading.
“The more responsible message is that some nootropic ingredients may support certain aspects of cognition under certain conditions, but they are not a shortcut to better brain function.”
