The research, conducted by researchers based in Scotland and England, assessed the dietary habits and micronutrient intake among pregnant women throughout their pregnancy and postpartum.
Although the researchers initially set out to focus on the correlations of BMI with nutrient intake, categorizing participants into weight groups, results revealed that impact of weight status had little impact on micronutrient intake.
Instead, the glaring takeaway was extreme nutrient deficiencies across several assessed micronutrients, regardless of weight category.
“A large proportion of pregnant women are not meeting micronutrient intakes required for optimal health,” the researchers wrote in the journal Nutrients.
Essential nutrients for a healthy pregnancy
Adequate nutrition during pregnancy supports both the mother and the growing fetus, and global dietary guidelines emphasize the importance of a balanced diet during pregnancy and postpartum.
Certain nutrients during pregnancy are essential, such as folic acid, which helps prevent neural tube defects, supports DNA synthesis and aids red blood cell formation, and iron, which supports blood health and ensures oxygen delivery to the baby.
Calcium is essential for babies bone and teeth development as well as supporting maternal bone health, and vitamin D aids in calcium absorption and immune function.
Other key nutrients include magnesium for muscle and nerve function, iodine for brain development, omega-3 fatty acids for nervous system development and zinc for cell growth, immune function and DNA synthesis.
Past research shows that pregnant women, like the general population, derive about 27% of their energy from ultra-processed foods (UPFs), however, research on micronutrient intake is limited, according to the authors of the new study.
They therefore aimed to compare macro- and micronutrient intake in overweight and obese pregnant women with those in the ideal BMI range and to assess how many women meet Harmonized Average Requirements (H-AR) during pregnancy.
Nutrient deficiencies among pregnant Glaswegians
The researchers conducted the study in the National Health Service (NHS) Greater Glasgow and Clyde maternity units between March 2010 and November 2011.
They recruited healthy Caucasian women between the ages of 16 and 40 at their first antenatal appointments, excluding those with metabolic diseases. They then retrospectively excluded participants who had developed antenatal complications like hypertension or gestational diabetes.
The final 42 participants were recruited to attend four clinic visits (one per trimester) and a postpartum visit. They were categorized into two weight groups: lean (BMI: 17.8–25.4 kg/m²) and overweight/obese (BMI: 27.1–36.6 kg/m²).
The researchers recorded all dietary intake through 24-hour dietary recalls, including supplements, and analyzed nutrient intake.
The results indicated that the overweight/obese and lean pregnant women consumed similar amounts of macronutrients.
Concerningly, more than 87% of all women did not meet the H-AR for niacin, while over 95% failed to meet the H-AR for folate and vitamin D through diet alone.
Across the board, micronutrient intake was insufficient, with over 87%, 95% and 95% of women failing to meet the H-AR for niacin, folate and vitamin D, respectively.
Additionally, more than 76% of lean women and 55% of overweight/obese women did not meet the H-AR for vitamin E and magnesium.
Overweight/obese women had higher sodium intake and a higher sodium-to-potassium ratio than lean women. This was likely due to an increased likelihood of consuming more processed foods and fewer whole foods like fruits and vegetables.
The results also showed that Scottish women’s energy intake from fat and carbohydrates was slightly higher than the global average, as reported in a meta-analysis of 54 studies on maternal nutrition.
The Glasgow Effect
In the early 2000s, the term “The Glasgow Effect” gained national popularity, as public health researchers and policymakers noticed that Glaswegians had disproportionately high rates of premature mortality.
The term refers to phenomenon of significantly lower life expectancy and poor health outcomes in Glasgow, compared to other similar post-industrial cities in the UK and Europe. There are many potential underlying causes, such as housing policies, culture, lifestyle and politics.
However, diet and nutrition are certainly linked, as they can influence chronic disease rates, mental health and overall mortality, and it is known that undernutrition can have long-term effects on development, health and life expectancy, perpetuating cycles of poor health.
Past research into the effect found that associations between unhealthy eating and deprivation accounted for much of the tendency of people in Glasgow to have poor diets, with researchers concluding that public policy should encourage better diets in Glasgow, and more effort must go into reducing social inequalities in eating habits.
Supplements for pregnancy
Miseducation can impact nutrition intake among pregnant people, according to other studies. Bayer, the German multinational company, recently surveyed 8,500 individuals across 10 European countries, examining consumer awareness, beliefs and practices regarding the “first 1,000 days” of a child’s development.
Findings revealed significant knowledge gaps about parental nutrition’s impact on early childhood development. For example, 60% of respondents did not realize that parental nutrition influences a baby’s growth during pregnancy and breastfeeding, while 55% had never received guidance on essential dietary changes.
Nearly half reported wanting more dietary and lifestyle advice from healthcare professionals, and 51% said they would improve their diets after learning more about the first 1,000 days, highlighting the potential for positive change through increased awareness and support.
Source: Nutrients 2025, 17(3), 550. doi: 10.3390/nu17030550. “Dietary Micronutrient Intake During Pregnancy Is Suboptimal in a Group of Healthy Scottish Women, Irrespective of Maternal Body Mass Index” .Authors: Jarvie, E. M. Et al.