Interoception is the process by which the nervous system perceives and interprets internal bodily signals. The process is essential for athletes to effectively modulate motor decisions, but it may be impaired after exhaustive exercise.
Writing in Scientific Reports, researchers from Beijing Sport University, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Universiti Sains Malaysia said that the findings showed PQQ supplementation may optimize resilience under physiological stress through its antioxidative and neuroprotective mechanisms.
The study also examined the effects of nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN), but reported that NMN supplementation alone did not significantly affect homeostasis post-acute exercise, unless combined with PQQ.
A total of 60 athletes with a mean age of 19.0 ± 0.7 years took part in the double-blind and placebo-controlled trial.
They were randomized to take either placebo (320 mg cornflour), PQQ (20 mg PQQ + 300 mg cornflour), NMN (300 mg NMN + 20 mg cornflour), or a combined supplement (20 mg PQQ + 300 mg NMN).
Both PQQ and NMN were chosen for the study as the former could enhance energy metabolism, reduce oxidative stress, while the latter, by increasing nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) levels, could reduce oxidative stress and neurodegeneration.
The supplements were taken with a standardized breakfast 60 minutes before completing an acute exhaustive exercise protocol using the Bruce treadmill test.
The participants’ ability to support the body’s homeostasis pre- and post-exercise was measured using the Body Perception Questionnaire and the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness.
Findings
Findings showed that both the PQQ and the PQQ and NMN supplementation could significantly improve the body’s homeostasis post-exercise as compared to the control group.
This was evident from improvements in the body listening domain of the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA) questionnaire.
“Body listening was the only domain that demonstrated a significant group × time interaction (p = 0.016), with the PQQ group showing significant improvement (p < 0.001)," the researchers wrote.
The group taking NMN and PQQ also saw a significant improvement in body listening scores, with a p-value of 0.011.
Body listening reflects the tendency to attend to internal bodily sensations to gain insight and understanding.
In the exercise environment, higher body listening ability facilitates more insight into functional states and fatigue, enabling individuals to modulate performance and recovery more effectively.
“Accordingly, as an effective nutritional intervention for enhancing bodily awareness and self-regulation, PQQ supplementation may serve as a nutritional strategy to optimize interoceptive regulation and resilience under physiological stress,” the researchers wrote.
First-of-its-kind finding
“This study is among the first to find improvements in interoceptive sensitivity attributable to PQQ supplementation, particularly in the domain of body listening, following exhaustive exercise,” the report said.
According to the researchers, PQQ may protect against interoceptive disturbances induced by maximal-intensity exercise through its antioxidant and neuroprotective mechanisms.
For example, PQQ supplementation could upregulate the expression of nerve growth factor and its receptors, support neuronal growth and repair and enhance neurotransmitter secretion—particularly norepinephrine—in the brain.
Through such mechanisms, PQQ may maintain synaptic integrity, enhance sympathetic nervous system signaling and stabilize interoceptive feedback loops during high-intensity physical exertion.
In contrast, NMN supplementation alone did not significantly influence interoception following exhaustive exercise.
The researchers said this could be because NMN supplementation did not directly affect mechanisms linked to interoception.
“Although NMN increases intracellular NAD⁺ concentrations, thereby supporting SIRT1-dependent pathways that promote mitochondrial biogenesis, neuronal survival, and anti-inflammatory activity, these effects are primarily substrate-driven rather than signal-initiated. Consequently, they may require sustained activation over a longer period to induce measurable neural adaptations.“
PQQ, on the other hand, could directly activate AMPK/PGC-1α and SIRT1 signaling, allowing more immediate modulation of neuronal redox homeostasis during acute physiological stress.
Source: Scientific Reports. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-34191-0. “The effects of pyrroloquinoline quinone and nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation on interoception following acute exhaustive exercise: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.” Authors: Zhao, C., Wu, B., Sui, H. et al.
